tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-69470403722151153512024-03-13T03:54:16.682-07:00musicAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11346017935235153397noreply@blogger.comBlogger1125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6947040372215115351.post-49950055471138530622013-06-05T23:52:00.000-07:002013-06-05T23:52:11.313-07:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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For other uses, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_%28disambiguation%29" title="Music (disambiguation)">Music (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected indefinitely in response to an ongoing high risk of vandalism."><img alt="Page semi-protected" height="20" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% antiquewhite; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;">Music</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Music_lesson_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2421.jpg"><img alt="Music lesson Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2421.jpg" height="157" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Music_lesson_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2421.jpg/250px-Music_lesson_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2421.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<span>A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (c. 510 BC).</span></td>
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<th scope="row" style="text-align: left;">Medium</th>
<td>Sound</td>
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<th scope="row" style="text-align: left;">Originating culture</th>
<td>various</td>
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<th scope="row" style="text-align: left;">Originating era</th>
<td><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a></td>
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<th class="" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% antiquewhite; border-bottom: 4px solid white; font-size: 145%; line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0.5em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a></th>
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<th class="" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% antiquewhite; padding: 0.1em;">Major forms</th>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">Ballet</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li>
<li><strong class="selflink">Music</strong> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a>)</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li>
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<th class="" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% antiquewhite; padding: 0.1em;">Minor forms</th>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circus_skills" title="Circus skills">Circus skills</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_%28illusion%29" title="Magic (illusion)">Magic</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mime_artist" title="Mime artist">Mime</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppetry" title="Puppetry">Puppetry</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Speech</a></li>
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<th class="" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% antiquewhite; padding: 0.1em;">Genres</th>
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<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy_%28drama%29" title="Comedy (drama)">Comedy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">Lyrical</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_%28heroic_literature%29" title="Romance (heroic literature)">Romance</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">Tragicomedy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li>
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<b>Music</b> is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> form whose <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_%28arts%29" title="Media (arts)">medium</a> is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">sound</a> and silence. Its common elements are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_%28music%29" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a> (which governs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody" title="Melody">melody</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a> (and its associated concepts <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempo" title="Tempo">tempo</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_%28music%29" title="Meter (music)">meter</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articulation_%28music%29" title="Articulation (music)">articulation</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_%28music%29" title="Dynamics (music)">dynamics</a>, and the sonic qualities of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre" title="Timbre">timbre</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_%28music%29" title="Texture (music)">texture</a>. The word derives from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE#Ancient_Greek" title="wikt:μουσική">μουσική</a></i> (<i>mousike</i>; "art of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muses" title="Muses">Muses</a>").<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The creation, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">performance</a>, significance, and even the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_music" title="Definition of music">definition of music</a>
vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from
strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance),
through improvisational music to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleatory" title="Aleatory">aleatoric</a> forms. Music can be divided into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genres</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgenre" title="Subgenre">subgenres</a>,
although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are
often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and
occasionally controversial. Within <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a>, music may be classified as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">performing art</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine art</a>, and auditory art. It may also be divided among <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music" title="Art music">art music</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a>. There is also a strong connection between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_and_mathematics" title="Music and mathematics">music and mathematics</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> Music may be played and heard live, may be part of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">dramatic work</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_score" title="Film score">film</a>, or may be recorded.<br />
To many people in many cultures, music is an important part of their way of life. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy" title="Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy#Ancient_Indian_philosophers" title="Ancient philosophy">Indian philosophers</a>
defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically
as harmonies. Common sayings such as "the harmony of the spheres" and
"it is music to my ears" point to the notion that music is often ordered
and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a> thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, "There is no noise, only sound."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> Musicologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Nattiez" title="Jean-Jacques Nattiez">Jean-Jacques Nattiez</a>
summarizes the relativist, post-modern viewpoint: "The border between
music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even
within a single society, this border does not always pass through the
same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts
there is no <i>single</i> and <i>intercultural</i> universal concept defining what music might be."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
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<h2>
Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#" id="togglelink">hide</a>] </span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Prehistoric_eras"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Prehistoric eras</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Ancient_Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Egypt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Asian_cultures"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Asian cultures</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#References_in_the_Bible"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">References in the Bible</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Antiquity"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Antiquity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Ancient_Greece"><span class="tocnumber">1.5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Greece</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#The_Middle_Ages"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">The Middle Ages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#The_Renaissance"><span class="tocnumber">1.7</span> <span class="toctext">The Renaissance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#The_Baroque"><span class="tocnumber">1.8</span> <span class="toctext">The Baroque</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Classicism"><span class="tocnumber">1.9</span> <span class="toctext">Classicism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Romanticism"><span class="tocnumber">1.10</span> <span class="toctext">Romanticism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#20th-_and_21st-century_music"><span class="tocnumber">1.11</span> <span class="toctext">20th- and 21st-century music</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Performance"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Performance</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Aural_tradition"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Aural tradition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Ornamentation"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ornamentation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Production"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Production</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Composition"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Composition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Notation"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Notation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Improvisation"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Improvisation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Theory"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Theory</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Philosophy_and_aesthetics"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Philosophy and aesthetics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Cognition_and_psychology"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Cognition and psychology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Music_cognition"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Music cognition</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Cognitive neuroscience of music</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Music_psychology"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Music psychology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Cognitive_musicology"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Cognitive musicology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Psychoacoustics"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Psychoacoustics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Biomusicology"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Biomusicology</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Sociology"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Sociology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Media_and_technology"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Media and technology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Internet"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Internet</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Business"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Business</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Education"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Education</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Non-professional"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Non-professional</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Academia"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Academia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Ethnomusicology"><span class="tocnumber">9.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ethnomusicology</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Music_therapy"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Music therapy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-42"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
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<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div class="rellink">
Further information: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_classical_music_traditions" title="History of classical music traditions">History of classical music traditions</a></div>
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Prehistoric_eras">Prehistoric eras</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_music" title="Prehistoric music">Prehistoric music</a></div>
Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic</a> archaeology sites. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic_flutes" title="Paleolithic flutes">Flutes</a>
are often discovered, carved from bones in which lateral holes have
been pierced; these are thought to have been blown at one end like the
Japanese <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakuhachi" title="Shakuhachi">shakuhachi</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divje_Babe_flute" title="Divje Babe flute">Divje Babe flute</a>, carved from a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_bear" title="Cave bear">cave bear</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a>, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_instrument" title="String instrument">stringed instruments</a>, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravanahatha" title="Ravanahatha">Ravanahatha</a>, have been recovered from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> sites.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a> (<i>marga</i>) are found in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>, ancient scriptures of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> tradition.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-brown_6-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-brown-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-wilkinson_7-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-wilkinson-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurrian_song" title="Hurrian song">Hurrian song</a>, found on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a> that date back to approximately 1400 BC, is the oldest surviving notated work of music.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music of Egypt</a></div>
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Musicians of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a>, Tomb of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakht" title="Nakht">Nakht</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt">18th Dynasty</a>, Western Thebes.</div>
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The ancient <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a> credited one of their gods, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a>, with the invention of music, which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a>
in turn used as part of his effort to civilize the world. The earliest
material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments
dates to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic period</a>, but the evidence is more securely attested in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harp" title="Harp">harps</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flute" title="Flute">flutes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_clarinet" title="Double clarinet">double clarinets</a> were played.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussion_instrument" title="Percussion instrument">Percussion instruments</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyres</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lutes</a> were added to orchestras by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymbal" title="Cymbal">Cymbals</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still do in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> today. Egyptian <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a>, including the traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr">Sufi <i>dhikr</i></a> rituals, are the closest contemporary <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_genre" title="Music genre">music genre</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Asian_cultures">Asian cultures</span></h3>
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<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangubai_Hangal" title="Gangubai Hangal">Gangubai Hangal</a><br />
<small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga_%28raga%29" title="Durga (raga)">Durga</a></small></th>
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<div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">
See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Music of Iran</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Afghanistan" title="Music of Afghanistan">Music of Afghanistan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Tajikistan" title="Music of Tajikistan">Music of Tajikistan</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Sri_Lanka" title="Music of Sri Lanka">Music of Sri Lanka</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Uzbekistan" title="Music of Uzbekistan">Music of Uzbekistan</a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_classical_music" title="Indian classical music">Indian classical music</a> is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> has sculptures that show dance<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup>
and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types
of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrappa" title="Harrappa">Harrappa</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohenjo_Daro" title="Mohenjo Daro">Mohenjo Daro</a> by excavations carried out by Sir <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> has elements of present Indian music, with a musical notation to denote the metre and the mode of chanting.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raga" title="Raga">raga</a> rhythmically organized through <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tala_%28music%29" title="Tala (music)">talas</a>.
Hindustani music was influenced by the Persian performance practices of
the Afghan Mughals. Carnatic music popular in the southern states, is
largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu
deities. There are a lot of songs emphasising love and other social
issues.<br />
<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_music" title="Asian music">Asian music</a> covers the music cultures of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_music" title="Arabic music">Arabia</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asian_music" title="Central Asian music">Central Asia</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_music" title="East Asian music">East Asia</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_music" title="South Asian music">South Asia</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asian_music" title="Southeast Asian music">Southeast Asia</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_classical_music" title="Chinese classical music">Chinese classical music</a>,
the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching
over around three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of
musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical
instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is
pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave
(5 + 7 = 12) as does European-influenced music. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Persian music</a> is the music of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Persia</a> and Persian language countries: <i>musiqi</i>, the science and art of music, and <i>muzik</i>, the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983).<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="References_in_the_Bible">References in the Bible</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music_in_the_biblical_period" title="History of music in the biblical period">History of music in the biblical period</a></div>
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<center>
"David with his harp" <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Psalter" title="Paris Psalter">Paris Psalter</a>,<br />
c. 960, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></center>
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Music and theatre scholars studying the history and anthropology of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic" title="Semitic">Semitic</a> and early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a> culture have discovered common links in theatrical and musical activity between the classical cultures of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrews</a> and those of later <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>. The common area of performance is found in a "social phenomenon called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litany" title="Litany">litany</a>," a form of prayer consisting of a series of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">invocations</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplication" title="Supplication">supplications</a>. <i>The Journal of Religion and Theatre</i> notes that among the earliest forms of litany, "Hebrew litany was accompanied by a rich musical tradition:"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-JRT_16-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-JRT-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<dl><dd>"While Genesis 4.21 identifies Jubal as the “father of all such as
handle the harp and pipe,” the Pentateuch is nearly silent about the
practice and instruction of music in the early life of Israel. Then, in I
Samuel 10 and the texts that follow, a curious thing happens. “One
finds in the biblical text,” writes Alfred Sendrey, “a sudden and
unexplained upsurge of large choirs and orchestras, consisting of
thoroughly organized and trained musical groups, which would be
virtually inconceivable without lengthy, methodical preparation.” This
has led some scholars to believe that the prophet Samuel was the
patriarch of a school, which taught not only prophets and holy men, but
also sacred-rite musicians. This public music school, perhaps the
earliest in recorded history, was not restricted to a priestly
class—which is how the shepherd boy David appears on the scene as a
minstrel to King Saul."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-JRT_16-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-JRT-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Antiquity">Antiquity</span></h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western cultures</a>
have had a major influence on the development of music. The history of
the music of the Western cultures can be traced back to Ancient Greece
times.<br />
<h4>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Greece">Ancient Greece</span></h4>
Music was an important part of social and cultural life in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. Musicians and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singer" title="Singer">singers</a> played a prominent role in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Greek theater</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-grove_17-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-grove-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Mixed-gender <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">choruses</a> performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-west_18-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-west-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> Instruments included the double-reed <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a></i> and a plucked <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_instrument" title="String instrument">string instrument</a>, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyre" title="Lyre">lyre</a></i>, principally the special kind called a <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kithara" title="Kithara">kithara</a></i>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Greece" title="Music of Greece">Music</a>
was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting
at age six. Greek musical literacy created a flowering of music
development. Greek <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a> included the Greek <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_mode" title="Musical mode">musical modes</a>, that eventually became the basis for Western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_music" title="Religious music">religious</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_classical_music" title="European classical music">classical</a> music. Later, influences from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> changed Greek music. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seikilos_epitaph" title="Seikilos epitaph">Seikilos epitaph</a> is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="The_Middle_Ages">The Middle Ages</span></h3>
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<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9onin" title="Léonin">Léonin</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9rotin" title="Pérotin">Pérotin</a><br />
<small>Breves dies hominis</small></th>
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The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Music" title="Medieval Music">medieval</a> era (476 AD to 1400 AD) started with the introduction of chanting into <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>
services. Western Music then started becoming more of an art form with
the advances in music notation. The only European Medieval repertory
that survives from before about 800 is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophony" title="Monophony">monophonic</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainsong" title="Plainsong">plainsong</a> of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a>. Alongside these traditions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_music" title="Religious music">sacred</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_music" title="Church music">church music</a> there existed a vibrant tradition of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_music" title="Secular music">secular song</a>. Examples of composers from this period are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9onin" title="Léonin">Léonin</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9rotin" title="Pérotin">Pérotin</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut" title="Guillaume de Machaut">Guillaume de Machaut</a>.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="The_Renaissance">The Renaissance</span></h3>
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<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Luis_de_Victoria" title="Tomás Luis de Victoria">T.L. de Victoria</a><br />
<small>Amicus meus</small></th>
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Allegory of Music, by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippino_Lippi" title="Filippino Lippi">Filippino Lippi</a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> music (c. 1400 A.D. to 1600 A.D.) was more focused on secular themes. Around 1450, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>
press was invented, and that helped to disseminate musical styles more
quickly and across a larger area. Thus, music could play an increasingly
important role in daily life. Musicians worked for the church, courts
and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an
important patron of music. By the middle of the 15th century, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composer" title="Composer">composers</a> wrote richly polyphonic sacred music. Prominent composers from this era are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillaume_Dufay" title="Guillaume Dufay">Guillaume Dufay</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina" title="Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina">Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Morley" title="Thomas Morley">Thomas Morley</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlande_de_Lassus" title="Orlande de Lassus">Orlande de Lassus</a>. However, musical activity shifted to the courts. Kings and princes competed for the finest composers.<br />
Many leading important composers came from Holland, Belgium, and
northern France and are called the Franco-Flemish composers. They held
important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other
countries with vibrant musical lives include Germany, England, and
Spain.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="The_Baroque">The Baroque</span></h3>
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<th align="center"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.S.Bach" title="J.S.Bach">J.S.Bach</a><br />
<small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toccata_and_Fugue_in_D_minor,_BWV_565" title="Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565">Toccata und Fuge</a></small></th>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_music" title="Baroque music">Baroque era of music</a> took place from 1600 to 1750, as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque artistic style</a> flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded in its range and complexity. Baroque music began when the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">operas</a> were written and when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterpoint" title="Counterpoint">contrapuntal</a> music became prevalent. German Baroque composers wrote for small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble" title="Musical ensemble">ensembles</a> including strings, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass_instrument" title="Brass instrument">brass</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodwind_instrument" title="Woodwind instrument">woodwinds</a>, as well as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">choirs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_%28music%29" title="Organ (music)">pipe organ</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpsichord" title="Harpsichord">harpsichord</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clavichord" title="Clavichord">clavichord</a>.
During this period several major music forms were defined that lasted
into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further,
including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugue" title="Fugue">fugue</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_%28musical_composition%29" title="Invention (musical composition)">invention</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata" title="Sonata">sonata</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto" title="Concerto">concerto</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup>
The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and ornamental and
rich in its melodies. Composers from the Baroque era include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">George Frideric Handel</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Philipp_Telemann" title="Georg Philipp Telemann">Georg Philipp Telemann</a>.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Classicism">Classicism</span></h3>
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<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">W.A. Mozart</a><br />
<small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_No._40_%28Mozart%29" title="Symphony No. 40 (Mozart)">Symphony 40 g-moll</a></small></th>
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The music of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_period_%28music%29" title="Classical period (music)">Classical Period</a>
(1750 A.D. to 1830 A.D.) looked to the art and philosophy of Ancient
Greece and Rome, to the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined
expression. It has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture,
and tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were
discovered. The main style was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">homophony</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> where prominent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody" title="Melody">melody</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accompaniment" title="Accompaniment">accompaniment</a> are clearly distinct.<br />
Importance was given to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumental" title="Instrumental">instrumental</a> music. It was dominated by further evolution of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata" title="Sonata">sonata</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto" title="Concerto">concerto</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony" title="Symphony">symphony</a>. Others main kinds were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trio_%28music%29" title="Trio (music)">trio</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_quartet" title="String quartet">string quartet</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serenade" title="Serenade">serenade</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divertimento" title="Divertimento">divertimento</a>.
The sonata was the most important and developed form. Although Baroque
composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is
completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical
era were based on the dramatic structure of the sonata.<br />
One of the most important evolutionary steps made in the Classical
period was the development of public concerts. The aristocracy would
still play a significant role in the sponsorship of musical life, but it
was now possible for composers to survive without being its permanent
employees. The increasing popularity led to a growth in both the number
and range of the orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts
necessitated large public spaces. As a result of all these processes,
symphonic music (including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">ballet</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oratorio" title="Oratorio">oratorio</a>) became more extroverted.<br />
The best known composers of Classicism are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach" title="Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach">Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Willibald_Gluck" title="Christoph Willibald Gluck">Christoph Willibald Gluck</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Christian_Bach" title="Johann Christian Bach">Johann Christian Bach</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a>. Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in evolution towards Romanticism.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Romanticism">Romanticism</span></h3>
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<th align="center"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">R. Wagner</a><br />
<small><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Walk%C3%BCre" title="Die Walküre">Die Walküre</a></small></th>
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<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_Music" title="Romantic Music">Romantic Music</a>
(c. 1810 A.D. to 1900 A.D.) turned the rigid styles and forms of the
Classical era into more passionate and expressive pieces. It attempted
to increase emotional expression and power to describe deeper truths or
human feelings. The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to
take precedence over technique and tradition. Romantic composers grew in
idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of different art-forms
(such as literature), history (historical figures), or nature itself
with music. Romantic love was a prevalent theme in many works composed
during this period. In some cases the formal structures from the
classical period were preserved, but in many others existing genres,
forms, and functions were improved. Also, new forms were created that
were deemed better suited to the new subject matter. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">Opera</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">ballet</a> continued to evolve.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-grove_17-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-grove-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In 1800, the music developed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a> introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's case, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_%28music%29" title="Motif (music)">motifs</a>, developed organically, came to replace <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody" title="Melody">melody</a> as the most significant compositional unit. Later Romantic composers such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k" title="Antonín Dvořák">Antonín Dvořák</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Gustav Mahler</a> used more elaborated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_%28music%29" title="Chord (music)">chords</a> and more <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance" title="Consonance and dissonance">dissonance</a> to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much longer musical works. During Romantic period <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality" title="Tonality">tonality</a> was at its peak. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra" title="Orchestra">orchestra</a>, and in the role of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert" title="Concert">concerts</a> as part of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_culture" title="Urban culture">urban</a> society. It also saw a new diversity in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">theatre music</a>, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operetta" title="Operetta">operetta</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy" title="Edwardian musical comedy">musical comedy</a> and other forms of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">musical theatre</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-grove_17-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-grove-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="20th-_and_21st-century_music">20th- and 21st-century music</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_music" title="20th-century music">20th-century music</a></div>
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Double bassist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggie_Workman" title="Reggie Workman">Reggie Workman</a>, tenor saxophone player <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharoah_Sanders" title="Pharoah Sanders">Pharoah Sanders</a>, and drummer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_Muhammad" title="Idris Muhammad">Idris Muhammad</a> performing in 1978</div>
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With <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_music" title="20th-century music">20th-century music</a>, there was a vast increase in music listening as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> gained popularity and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonographs</a> were used to replay and distribute music. The focus of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_music" title="Art music">art music</a> was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Arnold Schoenberg</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>
were all influential composers in 20th-century art music. The invention
of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new
sub-genre of classical music, including the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousmatic" title="Acousmatic">acousmatic</a> <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musique_concr%C3%A8te" title="Musique concrète">Musique concrète</a> schools of electronic composition.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">Jazz</a>
evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the
20th century, and during the second half of that century, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock music</a> did the same. Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th century in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American" title="African American">African American</a> communities in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a> from a confluence of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African" title="African">African</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> music traditions. The style's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West African</a> pedigree is evident in its use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_note" title="Blue note">blue notes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improvisation" title="Improvisation">improvisation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyrhythm" title="Polyrhythm">polyrhythms</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncopation" title="Syncopation">syncopation</a>, and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swung_note" title="Swung note">swung note</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> From its early development until the present, jazz has also incorporated music from 19th- and 20th-century <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_popular_music" title="American popular music">American popular music</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> Jazz has, from its early-20th-century inception, spawned a variety of subgenres, ranging from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixieland" title="Dixieland">Dixieland</a> (1910s) to 1970s and 1980s-era <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_fusion" title="Jazz fusion">jazz-rock fusion</a>.<br />
Rock music is a genre of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a> that developed in the 1960s from 1950s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockabilly" title="Rockabilly">rockabilly</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">country music</a>. The sound of rock often revolves around the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_guitar" title="Electric guitar">electric guitar</a> or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbeat_%28music%29" title="Backbeat (music)">back beat</a> laid down by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_section" title="Rhythm section">rhythm section</a> of electric <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_guitar" title="Bass guitar">bass guitar</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_kit" title="Drum kit">drums</a>, and keyboard instruments such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_%28music%29" title="Organ (music)">organ</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano" title="Piano">piano</a>, or, since the 1970s, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_synthesizer" title="Analog synthesizer">analog synthesizers</a> and digital ones and computers since the 1990s. Along with the guitar or keyboards, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxophone" title="Saxophone">saxophone</a> and blues-style <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonica" title="Harmonica">harmonica</a>
are used as soloing instruments. In its "purest form," it "has three
chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> In the late 1960s and early 1970s, it branched out into different subgenres, ranging from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues_rock" title="Blues rock">blues rock</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_fusion" title="Jazz fusion">jazz-rock fusion</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_music" title="Heavy metal music">heavy metal</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock" title="Punk rock">punk rock</a>, as well as the more classical influenced genre of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_rock" title="Progressive rock">progressive rock</a> and several types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_rock" title="Experimental rock">experimental rock</a> genres.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Performance">Performance</span></h2>
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Chinese <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhi" title="Nakhi">Naxi</a> musicians</div>
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Performance is the physical expression of music. Often, a musical
work is performed once its structure and instrumentation are
satisfactory to its creators; however, as it gets performed, it can
evolve and change. A performance can either be rehearsed or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation" title="Musical improvisation">improvised</a>.
Improvisation is a musical idea created without premeditation, while
rehearsal is vigorous repetition of an idea until it has achieved
cohesion. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musician" title="Musician">Musicians</a> will sometimes add improvisation to a well-rehearsed idea to create a unique performance.<br />
Many cultures include strong traditions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo_%28music%29" title="Solo (music)">solo</a> and performance, such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western art-music tradition. Other cultures, such as in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>,
include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a
mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing
for one's enjoyment to highly planned and organised performance rituals
such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_festival" title="Music festival">music festivals</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_competition" title="Music competition">music competitions</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_music" title="Chamber music">Chamber music</a>,
which is music for a small ensemble with only a few of each type of
instrument, is often seen as more intimate than symphonic works.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Aural_tradition">Aural tradition</span></h3>
Many types of music, such as traditional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a> were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_history" title="Oral history">orally</a>,
or aurally (by ear). When the composer of music is no longer known,
this music is often classified as "traditional." Different musical
traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make
changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those
that demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's
history may also be passed by ear through song.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Ornamentation">Ornamentation</span></h3>
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In a score or on a performer's music part, this sign indicates that the musician should perform a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_%28music%29" title="Trill (music)">trill</a>—a rapid alternation between two notes. <span class="unicode haudio" style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="fn"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trill_example_ornaments.mid" title="About this sound"><img alt="About this sound" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" width="11" /></a> <a class="internal" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Trill_example_ornaments.mid" title="Trill example ornaments.mid">Play</a></span> <small class="metadata audiolinkinfo" style="cursor: help;">(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help"><span style="cursor: help;">help</span></a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trill_example_ornaments.mid" title="File:Trill example ornaments.mid"><span style="cursor: help;">info</span></a>)</small></span></div>
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The detail included explicitly in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">music notation</a>
varies between genres and historical periods. In general, art music
notation from the 17th through the 19th century required performers to
have a great deal of contextual knowledge about performing styles. For
example, in the 17th and 18th century, music notated for solo performers
typically indicated a simple, unadorned melody. However, performers
were expected to know how to add stylistically appropriate ornaments,
such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_%28music%29" title="Trill (music)">trills</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turn_%28music%29#Turn" title="Turn (music)">turns</a>.
In the 19th century, art music for solo performers may give a general
instruction such as to perform the music expressively, without
describing in detail how the performer should do this. The performer was
expected to know how to use tempo changes, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accent_%28music%29" title="Accent (music)">accentuation</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_%28music%29" title="Rest (music)">pauses</a>
(among other devices) to obtain this "expressive" performance style. In
the 20th century, art music notation often became more explicit and
used a range of markings and annotations to indicate to performers how
they should play or sing the piece.<br />
In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a>
and jazz, music notation almost always indicates only the basic
framework of the melody, harmony, or performance approach; musicians and
singers are expected to know the performance conventions and styles
associated with specific genres and pieces. For example, the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_sheet" title="Lead sheet">lead sheet</a>" for a jazz tune may only indicate the melody and the chord changes. The performers in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_band" title="Jazz band">jazz ensemble</a> are expected to know how to "flesh out" this basic structure by adding ornaments, improvised music, and chordal accompaniment.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Production">Production</span></h2>
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Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_production" title="Music production">Music production</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photo_r%C3%A9cital_028.JPG"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="133" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Photo_r%C3%A9cital_028.JPG/200px-Photo_r%C3%A9cital_028.JPG" width="200" /></a>
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Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier</div>
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Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>
product for the marketplace. Amateur musicians compose and perform
music for their own pleasure, and they do not derive their income from
music. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions
and organisations, including armed forces, churches and synagogues,
symphony orchestras, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">film production</a> companies, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_school" title="Music school">music schools</a>. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings.<br />
There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_lesson" title="Music lesson">lessons</a>
with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur
musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles
and orchestras. In some cases, amateur musicians attain a professional
level of competence, and they are able to perform in professional
performance settings. A distinction is often made between music
performed for the benefit of a live audience and music that is performed
for the purpose of being recorded and distributed through the music
retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many
cases where a live performance in front of an audience is recorded and
distributed (or broadcast).<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Composition">Composition</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_composition" title="Musical composition">Musical composition</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Songbook_by_Davide_Restivo.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Songbook_by_Davide_Restivo.jpg/220px-Songbook_by_Davide_Restivo.jpg" width="220" /></a>
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An old songbook showing a composition</div>
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"Composition" is often classed as the creation and recording of music
via a medium by which others can interpret it (i.e., paper or sound).
Many cultures use at least part of the concept of preconceiving musical
material, or composition, as held in western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a>.
Even when music is notated precisely, there are still many decisions
that a performer has to make. The process of a performer deciding how to
perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed
interpretation. Different performers' interpretations of the same music
can vary widely. Composers and song writers who present their own music
are interpreting, just as much as those who perform the music of others
or folk music. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a
given time and a given place is referred to as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historically_informed_performance" title="Historically informed performance">performance practice</a>,
whereas interpretation is generally used to mean either individual
choices of a performer, or an aspect of music that is not clear, and
therefore has a "standard" interpretation.<br />
In some musical genres, such as jazz and blues, even more freedom is
given to the performer to engage in improvisation on a basic melodic,
harmonic, or rhythmic framework. The greatest latitude is given to the
performer in a style of performing called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_improvisation" title="Free improvisation">free improvisation</a>, which is material that is spontaneously "thought of" (imagined) while being performed, <i>not</i> preconceived. Improvised music usually follows stylistic or genre conventions and even "fully composed" includes some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precompositional" title="Precompositional">freely chosen material</a>.
Composition does not always mean the use of notation, or the known sole
authorship of one individual. Music can also be determined by
describing a "process" that creates musical sounds. Examples of this
range from wind chimes, through computer programs that select sounds.
Music from random elements is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleatoric_music" title="Aleatoric music">Aleatoric music</a>, and is associated with such composers as John Cage, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Feldman" title="Morton Feldman">Morton Feldman</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witold_Lutos%C5%82awski" title="Witold Lutosławski">Witold Lutosławski</a>.<br />
Music can be composed for repeated performance or it can be
improvised: composed on the spot. The music can be performed entirely
from memory, from a written system of musical notation, or some
combination of both. Study of composition has traditionally been
dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical
music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include
spontaneously improvised works like those of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_jazz" title="Free jazz">free jazz</a> performers and African drummers such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewe_drumming" title="Ewe drumming">Ewe drummers</a>.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Notation">Notation</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">Musical notation</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.svg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="127" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.svg/300px-Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.svg.png" width="300" /></a>
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Sheet music is written representation of music. This is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homorhythm" title="Homorhythm">homorhythmic</a> (i.e., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymn</a>-style) arrangement of a traditional piece entitled "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adeste_Fideles" title="Adeste Fideles">Adeste Fideles</a>", in standard two-staff format for mixed voices. <span class="unicode haudio" style="white-space: nowrap;"><span class="fn"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.mid" title="About this sound"><img alt="About this sound" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" width="11" /></a> <a class="internal" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.mid" title="Adeste Fideles sheet music sample.mid">Play</a></span> <small class="metadata audiolinkinfo" style="cursor: help;">(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help"><span style="cursor: help;">help</span></a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adeste_Fideles_sheet_music_sample.mid" title="File:Adeste Fideles sheet music sample.mid"><span style="cursor: help;">info</span></a>)</small></span></div>
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Notation is the written expression of music notes and rhythms on
paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm
of the music is notated, along with instructions on how to perform the
music. The study of how to read notation involves music theory, harmony,
the study of performance practice, and in some cases an understanding
of historical performance methods. Written notation varies with style
and period of music. In Western Art music, the most common types of
written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an
ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the
individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the
standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody,
chords, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics" title="Lyrics">lyrics</a>
(if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Scores and parts
are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles
such as jazz "big bands."<br />
In popular music, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar" title="Guitar">guitarists</a> and electric <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bass_guitar" title="Bass guitar">bass</a>
players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as
"tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the
instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tabulature
was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a>, a stringed, fretted instrument. Notated music is produced as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_music" title="Sheet music">sheet music</a>.
To perform music from notation requires an understanding of both the
rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance
practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. In
improvisation, the performer often plays from music where only the chord
changes are written, requiring a great understanding of the music's
structure and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_progressions" title="Chord progressions">chord progressions</a>.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Improvisation">Improvisation</span></h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_improvisation" title="Musical improvisation">Musical improvisation</a>
is the creation of spontaneous music. Improvisation is often considered
an act of instantaneous composition by performers, where compositional
techniques are employed with or without preparation. Improvisation is a
major part of some types of music, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_fusion" title="Jazz fusion">jazz fusion</a>,
in which instrumental performers improvise solos and melody lines. In
the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill
during the Baroque era and during the Classical era; solo performers and
singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts. However, in the
20th and 21st century, improvisation played a smaller role in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Art_music." title="Western Art music.">Western Art music.</a><br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Theory">Theory</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">Music theory</a></div>
Music theory encompasses the nature and mechanics of music. It often
involves identifying patterns that govern composers' techniques and
examining the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">notation</a> of music. In a grand sense, music theory distills and analyzes the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_%28music%29" title="Parameter (music)">parameters</a> or elements of music – <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">rhythm</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatonic_function" title="Diatonic function">harmonic function</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody" title="Melody">melody</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structure</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_form" title="Musical form">form</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_%28music%29" title="Texture (music)">texture</a>. Broadly, music theory may include any statement, belief, or conception of or about music.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> People who study these properties are known as music theorists. Some have applied <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_physiology" title="Human physiology">human physiology</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> to the explanation of how and why music is <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceive" title="Perceive">perceived</a>.
Music has many different fundamentals or elements. These are, but are
not limited to: pitch, beat or pulse, rhythm, melody, harmony, texture,
allocation of voices, timbre or color, expressive qualities (dynamics
and articulation), and form or structure.<br />
Pitch is a subjective sensation, reflecting generally the lowness or highness of a sound. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a> is the arrangement of sounds and silences in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_%28music%29" title="Metre (music)">Meter</a> animates time in regular pulse groupings, called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_%28music%29" title="Bar (music)">measures or bars</a>.
A melody is a series of notes sounding in succession. The notes of a
melody are typically created with respect to pitch systems such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_scale" title="Musical scale">scales</a> or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_mode" title="Musical mode">modes</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a>
is the study of vertical sonorities in music. Vertical sonority refers
to considering the relationships between pitches that occur together;
usually this means at the same time, although harmony can also be
implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure. Notes can be
arranged into different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_%28music%29" title="Scale (music)">scales</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_mode" title="Musical mode">modes</a>.
Western music theory generally divides the octave into a series of 12
notes that might be included in a piece of music. In music written using
the system of major-minor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality" title="Tonality">tonality</a>, the <b>key</b> of a piece determines the scale used. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_texture" title="Musical texture">Musical texture</a>
is the overall sound of a piece of music commonly described according
to the number of and relationship between parts or lines of music: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophony" title="Monophony">monophony</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterophony" title="Heterophony">heterophony</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony" title="Polyphony">polyphony</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophony" title="Homophony">homophony</a>, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monody" title="Monody">monody</a>.<br />
Timbre, sometimes called "Color" or "Tone Color" is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup>
Expressive Qualities are those elements in music that create change in
music that are not related to pitch, rhythm or timbre. They include
Dynamics and Articulation. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_form" title="Musical form">Form</a>
is a facet of music theory that explores the concept of musical syntax,
on a local and global level. Examples of common forms of Western music
include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugue" title="Fugue">fugue</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_%28musical_composition%29" title="Invention (musical composition)">invention</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonata_form" title="Sonata form">sonata-allegro</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_%28music%29" title="Canon (music)">canon</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophic" title="Strophic">strophic</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_and_variations" title="Theme and variations">theme and variations</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rondo" title="Rondo">rondo</a>. Popular Music often makes use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strophic_form" title="Strophic form">strophic form</a> often in conjunction with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_bar_blues" title="Twelve bar blues">Twelve bar blues</a>. Analysis is the effort to describe and explain music.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Philosophy_and_aesthetics">Philosophy and aesthetics</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Aesthetics of music</a></div>
Philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding
music. The philosophical study of music has many connections with
philosophical questions in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>. Some basic questions in the philosophy of music are:<br />
<ul>
<li>What is the definition of music? (What are the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions" title="Necessary and sufficient conditions">necessary and sufficient conditions</a> for classifying something as music?)</li>
<li>What is the relationship between music and mind?</li>
<li>What does musical history reveal to us about the world?</li>
<li>What is the connection between music and emotions?</li>
<li>What is meaning in relation to music?</li>
</ul>
Traditionally, the aesthetics of music explored the mathematical and
cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization. In the
eighteenth century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing music,
and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment (<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaisir" title="Plaisir">plaisir</a></i> and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jouissance" title="Jouissance">jouissance</a></i>) of music. The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes attributed to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a> in the 18th century, followed by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kant" title="Kant">Kant</a>.
Through their writing, the ancient term 'aesthetics', meaning sensory
perception, received its present day connotation. In recent decades
philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and
enjoyment. For example, music's capacity to express emotion has been a
central issue.<br />
In the 20th century, important contributions were made by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kivy" title="Peter Kivy">Peter Kivy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerrold_Levinson" title="Jerrold Levinson">Jerrold Levinson</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Roger Scruton</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Davies_%28philosopher%29" title="Stephen Davies (philosopher)">Stephen Davies</a>. However, many musicians, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_criticism" title="Music criticism">music critics</a>,
and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music.
In the 19th century, a significant debate arose between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Eduard Hanslick</a>, a music critic and musicologist, and composer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Partch" title="Harry Partch">Harry Partch</a> and some other <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicologist" title="Musicologist">musicologists</a>, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Gann" title="Kyle Gann">Kyle Gann</a>, have studied and tried to popularize <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtonal_music" title="Microtonal music">microtonal music</a> and the usage of alternate <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_scale" title="Musical scale">musical scales</a>. Also many modern composers like <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamonte_Young" title="Lamonte Young">Lamonte Young</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhys_Chatham" title="Rhys Chatham">Rhys Chatham</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_Branca" title="Glenn Branca">Glenn Branca</a> paid much attention to a scale called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_intonation" title="Just intonation">just intonation</a>.<br />
It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions" title="Emotions">emotions</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellect" title="Intellect">intellect</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>; it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. The philosopher <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> suggests in <i>the Republic</i>
that music has a direct effect on the soul. Therefore, he proposes that
in the ideal regime music would be closely regulated by the state.
(Book VII)<br />
There has been a strong tendency in the aesthetics of music to
emphasize the paramount importance of compositional structure; however,
other issues concerning the aesthetics of music include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics" title="Lyrics">lyricism</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnotism" title="Hypnotism">hypnotism</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotiveness</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_Dynamics_of_Music_and_Language" title="Temporal Dynamics of Music and Language">temporal dynamics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a>, playfulness, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre_%28music%29" title="Timbre (music)">color</a> (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_development" title="Musical development">musical development</a>).<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Cognition_and_psychology">Cognition and psychology</span></h2>
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Music_cognition">Music cognition</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_cognition" title="Music cognition">Music cognition</a></div>
The field of music cognition involves the study of many aspects of
music, including how it is processed by listeners. Rather than accepting
the standard practices of analyzing, composing, and performing music as
a given, much research in music cognition seeks instead to uncover the
mental processes that underlie these practices. Also, research in the
field seeks to uncover commonalities between the musical traditions of
disparate cultures and possible cognitive "constraints" that limit these
musical systems. Questions regarding musical innateness, and emotional
responses to music are also major areas of research in the field.<br />
<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_impairment" title="Hearing impairment">Deaf</a>
people can experience music by feeling the vibrations in their body, a
process that can be enhanced if the individual holds a resonant, hollow
object. A well-known deaf musician is the composer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>, who composed many famous works even after he had completely lost his hearing. Recent examples of deaf musicians include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Glennie" title="Evelyn Glennie">Evelyn Glennie</a>, a highly acclaimed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussion_instrument" title="Percussion instrument">percussionist</a> who has been deaf since age twelve, and <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chris_Buck_%28violinist%29&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Chris Buck (violinist) (page does not exist)">Chris Buck</a>, a virtuoso <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violinist</a>
who has lost his hearing. This is relevant because it indicates that
music is a deeper cognitive process than unexamined phrases such as,
"pleasing to the ear" suggests. Much research in music cognition seeks
to uncover these complex mental processes involved in listening to
music, which may seem intuitively simple, yet are vastly intricate and
complex.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Neurological_Institute" title="Montreal Neurological Institute">Montreal Neurological Institute</a>
researcher Valorie Salimpoor and her colleagues have now shown that the
pleasurable feelings associated with emotional music are the result of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> release in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>—the same anatomical areas that underpin the anticipatory and rewarding aspects of drug <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music">Cognitive neuroscience of music</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music" title="Cognitive neuroscience of music">Cognitive neuroscience of music</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright">
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brodmann_41_42.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="158" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Brodmann_41_42.png/250px-Brodmann_41_42.png" width="250" /></a>
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The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_auditory_cortex" title="Primary auditory cortex">primary auditory cortex</a> is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.</div>
</div>
</div>
Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of
brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying
music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing,
reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly
concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical
emotion. Scientists working in this field may have training in cognitive
neuroscience, neurology, neuroanatomy, psychology, music theory,
computer science, and other allied fields.<br />
Cognitive neuroscience of music is distinguished from related fields such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">music psychology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_cognition" title="Music cognition">music cognition</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_musicology" title="Cognitive musicology">cognitive musicology</a> in its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> (TMS), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">magnetoencephalography</a> (MEG), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalography</a> (EEG), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">positron emission tomography</a> (PET).<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Music_psychology">Music psychology</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">Music psychology</a></div>
Music psychology, or the psychology of music, may be regarded as a branch of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> or a branch of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">musicology</a>.
It aims to explain and understand musical behavior and musical
experience. Modern music psychology is mainly empirical:
music-psychological knowledge tends to advance primarily on the basis of
interpretations of data about musical behavior and experience, which
are collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human
participants. Music psychology is a field of research with practical
relevance for music performance, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_composition" title="Music composition">music composition</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">music education</a>, <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Music_medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Music medicine (page does not exist)">music medicine</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_therapy" title="Music therapy">music therapy</a>.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Cognitive_musicology">Cognitive musicology</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_musicology" title="Cognitive musicology">Cognitive musicology</a></div>
Cognitive musicology is a branch of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> concerned with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model" title="Computer model">computationally modeling</a> musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Cognitive musicology can be differentiated from the fields of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_cognition" title="Music cognition">music cognition</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_psychology" title="Music psychology">music psychology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music" title="Cognitive neuroscience of music">cognitive neuroscience of music</a> by a difference in methodological emphasis. Cognitive musicology uses computer modeling to study music-related <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation" title="Knowledge representation">knowledge representation</a> and has roots in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>. The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the
parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired
models of computation are often included in research, such as neural
networks and evolutionary programs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup>
This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored,
perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured
computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive
phenomena can be investigated.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Psychoacoustics">Psychoacoustics</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Psychoacoustics</a></div>
<div class="rellink">
Further information: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing_%28sense%29" title="Hearing (sense)">Hearing (sense)</a></div>
Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound" title="Sound">sound</a> perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological" title="Psychological">psychological</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological" title="Physiological">physiological</a> responses associated with sound (including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">speech</a> and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics" title="Psychophysics">psychophysics</a>.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Biomusicology">Biomusicology</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomusicology" title="Biomusicology">Biomusicology</a></div>
Biomusicology is the study of music from a biological point of view. The term was coined by Nils L. Wallin in 1991.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup>
Music is an aspect of the behaviour of the human and possibly other
species. As humans are living organisms, the scientific study of music
is therefore part of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, thus the "bio" in "biomusicology."<br />
Biomusicologists are expected to have completed formal studies in
both biology or other experimental sciences and musicology including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_theory" title="Music theory">music theory</a>. The three main branches of biomusicology are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">evolutionary musicology</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_Musicology" title="Cognitive Musicology">neuromusicology</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">comparative musicology</a>.
Evolutionary musicology studies the "origins of music, the question of
animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music
evolution and human evolution". Neuromusicology studies the "brain
areas involved in music processing, neural and cognitive processes of
musical processing," and "ontogeny of musical capacity and musical
skill". Comparative musicology studies the "functions and uses of music,
advantages and costs of music making", and "universal features of
musical systems and musical behavior."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Brown.2C_Merker.2C_Wallin_33-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-Brown.2C_Merker.2C_Wallin-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Sociology">Sociology</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Sociomusicology</a></div>
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<center>
This Song Dynasty (960–1279) painting, entitled the "Night
Revels of Han Xizai," shows Chinese musicians entertaining guests at a
party in a 10th-century household.</center>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings
ranging from being alone to attending a large concert. Musical
performances take different forms in different cultures and
socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America, there is often a
divide between what types of music are viewed as a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>" and "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">low culture</a>."
"High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such
as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos,
and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert
halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in seats.<br />
Other types of music—including, but not limited to, jazz, blues, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_music" title="Soul music">soul</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">country</a>—are
often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience
may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until
the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical
forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out
better quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of
music heard in bars and dance halls.<br />
However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this
perceived divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that
this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the
different types of music.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomics</a> standing or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> of the performers or audience of the different types of music.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts
typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a rap concert in
an inner-city area may have below-average incomes.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is
performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is
performed, such as blues, rap, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_rock" title="Punk rock">punk</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funk" title="Funk">funk</a>, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ska" title="Ska">ska</a> may be very complex and sophisticated.<br />
When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention,
there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular
culture. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">ballet</a> scores, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serialism" title="Serialism">serialism</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bebop" title="Bebop">bebop</a>-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica" title="Electronica">electronica</a> have all been considered non-music by some critics when they were first introduced.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Such themes are examined in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> of music. The sociological study of music, sometimes called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">sociomusicology</a>, is often pursued in departments of sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">ethnomusicology</a>.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Media_and_technology">Media and technology</span></h2>
<div class="rellink">
Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_music" title="Computer music">Computer music</a></div>
The music that composers make can be heard through several <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">media</a>;
the most traditional way is to hear it live, in the presence of the
musicians (or as one of the musicians), in an outdoor or indoor space
such as an amphitheatre, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_hall" title="Concert hall">concert hall</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabaret" title="Cabaret">cabaret</a> room or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">theatre</a>. Live music can also be broadcast over the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.
Some musical styles focus on producing a sound for a performance, while
others focus on producing a recording that mixes together sounds that
were never played "live." Recording, even of essentially live styles,
often uses the ability to edit and splice to produce recordings
considered better than the actual performance.<br />
As <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_film" title="Sound film">talking pictures</a>
emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical
tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found
themselves out of work.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> During the 1920s live musical performances by orchestras, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pianist" title="Pianist">pianists</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_organ" title="Theater organ">theater organists</a> were common at first-run theaters.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Federation_of_Musicians" title="American Federation of Musicians">American Federation of Musicians</a>
(AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of
live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that
appeared in the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Press" title="Pittsburgh Press">Pittsburgh Press</a></i>
features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand /
Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever"<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Since legislation introduced to help protect performers, composers, publishers and producers, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Home_Recording_Act" title="Audio Home Recording Act">Audio Home Recording Act</a> of 1992 in the United States, and the 1979 revised <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</a>
in the United Kingdom, recordings and live performances have also
become more accessible through computers, devices and Internet in a form
that is commonly known as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music-On-Demand" title="Music-On-Demand">Music-On-Demand</a>.<br />
In many cultures, there is less distinction between performing and
listening to music, since virtually everyone is involved in some sort of
musical activity, often communal. In industrialized countries,
listening to music through a recorded form, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction" title="Sound recording and reproduction">sound recording</a> or watching a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_video" title="Music video">music video</a>, became more common than experiencing live performance, roughly in the middle of the 20th century.<br />
Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey" title="Disc jockey">disc jockey</a> uses <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record" title="Gramophone record">disc records</a> for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scratching" title="Scratching">scratching</a>,
and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that
is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computers</a> and many <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_%28computing%29" title="Keyboard (computing)">keyboards</a> can be programmed to produce and play <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_Instrument_Digital_Interface" title="Musical Instrument Digital Interface">Musical Instrument Digital Interface</a> (MIDI) music. Audiences can also <i>become</i> performers by participating in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karaoke" title="Karaoke">karaoke</a>,
an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays
voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines
also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed;
performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental
tracks.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Internet">Internet</span></h3>
The advent of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> has transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to music and the increased choice. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Anderson_%28writer%29" title="Chris Anderson (writer)">Chris Anderson</a>, in his book <i>The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More</i>, suggests that while the economic model of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> describes scarcity, the Internet retail model is based on abundance. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device" title="Data storage device">Digital storage</a>
costs are low, so a company can afford to make its whole inventory
available online, giving customers as much choice as possible. It has
thus become economically viable to offer products that very few people
are interested in. Consumers' growing awareness of their increased
choice results in a closer association between listening tastes and
social identity, and the creation of thousands of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_market" title="Niche market">niche markets</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Another effect of the Internet arises with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_community" title="Virtual community">online communities</a> like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service" title="Social networking service">social networking service</a>.
Such sites simplify connecting with other musicians, and greatly
facilitate the distribution of music. Professional musicians also use
YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material. YouTube users, for
example, no longer only download and listen to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3" title="MP3">MP3s</a>, but also actively create their own. According to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Tapscott" title="Don Tapscott">Don Tapscott</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_D._Williams_%28author%29" title="Anthony D. Williams (author)">Anthony D. Williams</a>, in their book <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikinomics" title="Wikinomics">Wikinomics</a></i>, there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosumer" title="Prosumer">prosumer</a>" role, a consumer who both creates and consumes. Manifestations of this in music include the production of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_%28music%29" title="Mashup (music)">mashes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remix" title="Remix">remixes</a>, and music videos by fans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Business">Business</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_industry" title="Music industry">Music industry</a></div>
The music industry refers to the business industry connected with the
creation and sale of music. It consists of record companies, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_label" title="Record label">labels</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_publisher_%28popular_music%29" title="Music publisher (popular music)">publishers</a>
that distribute recorded music products internationally and that often
control the rights to those products. Some music labels are "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_record_label" title="Independent record label">independent</a>," while others are subsidiaries of larger corporate entities or international <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_conglomerate" title="Media conglomerate">media groups</a>.
In the 2000s, the increasing popularity of listening to music as
digital music files on MP3 players, iPods, or computers, and of trading
music on file sharing sites or buying it online in the form of digital
files had a major impact on the traditional music business. Many smaller
independent CD stores went out of business as music buyers decreased
their purchases of CDs, and many labels had lower CD sales. Some
companies did well with the change to a digital format, though, such as
Apple's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes" title="ITunes">iTunes</a>, an online store that sells digital files of songs over the Internet.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Education">Education</span></h2>
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Non-professional">Non-professional</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_education" title="Music education">Music education</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suzuki_violin_recital.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="199" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Suzuki_violin_recital.jpg/300px-Suzuki_violin_recital.jpg" width="300" /></a>
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suzuki_violin_recital.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.22wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>
A Suzuki violin recital with students of varying ages.</div>
</div>
</div>
The incorporation of music training from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preschool_education" title="Preschool education">preschool</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education" title="Higher education">post secondary education</a> is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting" title="Counting">counting</a>, listening, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">cooperation</a> while also promoting understanding of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>, improving the ability to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">recall</a> information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school" title="Elementary school">elementary schools</a>, children often learn to play instruments such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recorder_%28musical_instrument%29" title="Recorder (musical instrument)">recorder</a>,
sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music.
In secondary schools students may have the opportunity to perform some
type of musical ensembles, such as choirs, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marching_band" title="Marching band">marching bands</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concert_band" title="Concert band">concert bands</a>, jazz bands, or orchestras, and in some school systems, music classes may be available. Some students also take private <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_lesson" title="Music lesson">music lessons</a>
with a teacher. Amateur musicians typically take lessons to learn
musical rudiments and beginner- to intermediate-level musical
techniques.<br />
At the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> level, students in most arts and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> programs can receive <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_%28education%29" title="Credit (education)">credit</a> for taking music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_music" title="History of music">history of music</a>, or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_appreciation" title="Music appreciation">music appreciation</a>
course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different
musical styles. In addition, most North American and European
universities have some type of musical ensembles that non-music students
are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, or
orchestras. The study of Western art music is increasingly common
outside of North America and Europe, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_Institute_of_the_Arts,_Yogyakarta" title="Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta">Indonesian Institute of the Arts</a> in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogyakarta_%28city%29" title="Yogyakarta (city)">Yogyakarta</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>,
or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries
such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western
universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music
of non-Western cultures, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">music of Africa</a> or Bali (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamelan" title="Gamelan">Gamelan</a> music).<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Academia">Academia</span></h3>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Musicology</a> is the study of the subject of music. The earliest definitions defined three sub-disciplines: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_musicology" title="Systematic musicology">systematic musicology</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_history" title="Music history">historical musicology</a>, and comparative musicology or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">ethnomusicology</a>.
In contemporary scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division
of the discipline into music theory, music history, and
ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by
cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">psychoacoustics</a>.
The study of music of non-western cultures, and the cultural study of
music, is called ethnomusicology. Students can pursue the undergraduate
study of musicology, ethnomusicology, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_history" title="Music history">music history</a>, and music theory through several different types of degrees, including a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.Mus" title="B.Mus">B.Mus</a>,
a B.A. with concentration in music, a B.A. with Honors in Music, or a
B.A. in Music History and Literature. Graduates of undergraduate music
programs can go on to further study in music graduate programs.<br />
Graduate degrees include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Music" title="Master of Music">Master of Music</a>, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Arts_%28postgraduate%29" title="Master of Arts (postgraduate)">Master of Arts</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (PhD) (e.g., in musicology or music theory), and more recently, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Musical_Arts" title="Doctor of Musical Arts">Doctor of Musical Arts</a>,
or DMA. The Master of Music degree, which takes one to two years to
complete, is typically awarded to students studying the performance of
an instrument, education, voice or composition. The Master of Arts
degree, which takes one to two years to complete and often requires a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissertation" title="Dissertation">thesis</a>, is typically awarded to students studying musicology, music history, or music theory. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate_education" title="Undergraduate education">Undergraduate</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">university degrees</a> in music, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Music" title="Bachelor of Music">Bachelor of Music</a>, the Bachelor of Music Education, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a>
(with a major in music) typically take three to five years to complete.
These degrees provide students with a grounding in music theory and
music history, and many students also study an instrument or learn
singing technique as part of their program.<br />
The PhD, which is required for students who want to work as
university professors in musicology, music history, or music theory,
takes three to five years of study after the Master's degree, during
which time the student will complete advanced courses and undertake
research for a dissertation. The DMA is a relatively new degree that was
created to provide a credential for professional performers or
composers that want to work as university professors in musical
performance or composition. The DMA takes three to five years after a
Master's degree, and includes advanced courses, projects, and
performances. In Medieval times, the study of music was one of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a> of the seven <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts" title="Liberal arts">Liberal Arts</a> and considered vital to higher learning. Within the quantitative Quadrivium, music, or more accurately <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic" title="Harmonic">harmonics</a>, was the study of rational proportions.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a> is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Herzog" title="George Herzog">George Herzog</a> (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Bernard_M%C3%A2che" title="François-Bernard Mâche">François-Bernard Mâche</a>'s <i>Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion</i> (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Ruwet" title="Nicolas Ruwet">Nicolas Ruwet</a>'s <i>Langage, musique, poésie</i> (1972) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmatic_analysis" title="Paradigmatic analysis">paradigmatic segmentation analysis</a>, shows that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">bird songs</a>
are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle.
Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that "in the last analysis, it is a
human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound
is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised
and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer,
but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human."<br />
Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical
manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study
of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and
may include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_practice_period" title="Common practice period">common practice period</a>, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonality" title="Tonality">tonal music</a>. Theory, even of music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory_%28music%29" title="Set theory (music)">Musical set theory</a> is the application of mathematical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set theory</a> to music, first applied to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atonality" title="Atonality">atonal music</a>. <i>Speculative music theory</i>, contrasted with <i>analytic music theory</i>, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_tuning" title="Musical tuning">tuning systems</a>, generally as preparation for composition.<br />
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;">
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="249" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg/200px-Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg" width="200" /></a>
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frances_Densmore_recording_Mountain_Chief2.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.22wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>
Ethnomusicologist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Densmore" title="Frances Densmore">Frances Densmore</a> recording <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfoot" title="Blackfoot">Blackfoot</a> chief Mountain Chief for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_American_Ethnology" title="Bureau of American Ethnology">Bureau of American Ethnology</a> (1916)</div>
</div>
</div>
<b>Ethnomusicology</b><br />
In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with
the Western civilization's art music. The history of music in other
cultures ("<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_music" title="World music">world music</a>"
or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western
universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian
countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk
or indigenous music of various other cultures. Popular styles of music
varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period.
Different cultures emphasised different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">instruments</a>,
or techniques, or uses for music. Music has been used not only for
entertainment, for ceremonies, and for practical and artistic
communication, but also for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>.<br />
There is a host of music classifications, many of which are caught up
in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of
these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and
popular music (or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_Commercial_Music" title="Contemporary Commercial Music">commercial music</a> – including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music" title="Rock music">rock music</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music" title="Country music">country music</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music" title="Pop music">pop music</a>). Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz music).<br />
As world cultures have come into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">greater contact</a>, their indigenous musical styles have often merged into new styles. For example, the United States <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluegrass_music" title="Bluegrass music">bluegrass</a> style contains elements from <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_Music_of_England" title="Folk Music of England">Anglo</a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Ireland" title="Music of Ireland">Irish</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Scottish</a>, Irish, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Germany" title="Music of Germany">German</a>
and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse
in the United States' multi-ethnic society. Genres of music are
determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music.
Some works, like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsody_in_Blue" title="Rhapsody in Blue">Rhapsody in Blue</a></i>, are claimed by both jazz and classical music, while Gershwin's <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess" title="Porgy and Bess">Porgy and Bess</a></i> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein" title="Leonard Bernstein">Leonard Bernstein</a>'s <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Side_Story_%28musical%29" title="West Side Story (musical)">West Side Story</a></i> are claimed by both opera and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_musical" title="Broadway musical">Broadway musical</a> tradition. Many current music festivals celebrate a particular musical genre.<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_India" title="Music of India">Indian music</a>,
for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music,
and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as
internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly
three forms of classical music, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_classical_music" title="Hindustani classical music">Hindustani</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_music" title="Carnatic music">Carnatic</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhrupad" title="Dhrupad">Dhrupad</a>
styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only
percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a>.<br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Music_therapy">Music therapy</span></h2>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_therapy" title="Music therapy">Music therapy</a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_therapy" title="Music therapy">Music therapy</a>
is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all
of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and
spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. In some
instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in
others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between
the client and therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all
ages and with a variety of conditions, including: psychiatric
disorders, medical problems, physical handicaps, sensory impairments,
developmental disabilities, substance abuse, communication disorders,
interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to: improve learning,
build self-esteem, reduce stress, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_and_music" title="Exercise and music">support physical exercise</a>, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities.<br />
One of the earliest mentions of music therapy was in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi's</a> (c. 872 – 950) treatise <i>Meanings of the Intellect</i>, which described the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic" title="Therapeutic">therapeutic</a> effects of music on the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soul_%28spirit%29" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (May 2011)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Music has long been used to help people deal with their emotions. In the 17th century, the scholar <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Burton_%28scholar%29" title="Robert Burton (scholar)">Robert Burton</a>'s <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Melancholy" title="The Anatomy of Melancholy">The Anatomy of Melancholy</a></i> argued that music and dance were critical in treating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental illness</a>, especially <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melancholia" title="Melancholia">melancholia</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup>
He noted that music has an "excellent power ...to expel many other
diseases" and he called it "a sovereign remedy against despair and
melancholy." He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus, a Rhodian fiddler,
used music to "make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more enamoured, a
religious man more devout." <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenic</a> patients.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, mental illnesses were treated with music.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_note-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="noprint tright portal" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); margin: 0.5em 0pt 0.5em 1em;">
<table style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 85%; line-height: 110%; max-width: 175px;">
<tbody>
<tr valign="middle">
<td style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Audio_a.svg"><img alt="Portal icon" height="18" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Audio_a.svg/32px-Audio_a.svg.png" width="32" /></a></td>
<td style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; padding: 0pt 0.2em; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Music" title="Portal:Music">Music portal</a></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">
Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_music" title="Outline of music">Outline of music</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_music_articles" title="Index of music articles">Index of music articles</a></div>
<ul>
<li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Books/Music" title="Wikipedia:Books/Music">Wikipedia:Books/Music</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_musicians" title="Lists of musicians">Lists of musicians</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_musicology_topics" title="List of musicology topics">List of musicology topics</a></li>
</ul>
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2368891" rel="nofollow">Mousike, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>, at Perseus</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external free" href="http://www.math.niu.edu/%7Erusin/uses-math/music/" rel="nofollow">http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/uses-math/music/</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Kozinn, Allen (13 August 1992). <a class="external text" href="http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE1DB1E3BF930A2575BC0A964958260" rel="nofollow">"John Cage, 79, a Minimalist Enchanted With Sound, Dies"</a>. <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 11 September 2012</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.atitle=John+Cage%2C+79%2C+a+Minimalist+Enchanted+With+Sound%2C+Dies&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft.au=Kozinn%2C+Allen&rft.aulast=Kozinn&rft.date=13+August+1992&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9E0CE1DB1E3BF930A2575BC0A964958260&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Nattiez" title="Jean-Jacques Nattiez">Nattiez, Jean-Jacques</a> (1990). <i>Music and discourse: toward a semiology of music</i>. Carolyn Abbate, translator. Princeton University Press. pp. 48, 55. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02714-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02714-5">0-691-02714-5</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft.aulast=Nattiez&rft.au=Nattiez%2C+Jean-Jacques&rft.btitle=Music+and+discourse%3A+toward+a+semiology+of+music&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-691-02714-5&rft.pages=48%2C+55&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN8170173329&id=yySNDP9XVggC&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=seven+holed+flute+and+various+types+of+stringed+instruments&sig=0baqFLb6KItfPYLoCdFWFTCD8Sk" rel="nofollow"><i>The Music of India</i></a> By Reginald MASSEY, Jamila MASSEY. Google Books</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-brown-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-brown_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Brown, RE (1971). "India's Music". <i>Readings in Ethnomusicology</i>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.atitle=India%27s+Music&rft.au=Brown%2C+RE&rft.aufirst=RE&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.date=1971&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Readings+in+Ethnomusicology&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-wilkinson-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-wilkinson_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2000). <i>Chinese history</i>. Harvard University Asia Center.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.aufirst=Endymion+Porter&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Endymion+Porter&rft.btitle=Chinese+history&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.umich.edu/%7Ekelseydb/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/AncientEgypt/AncientEgypt.html" rel="nofollow">Music of Ancient Egypt</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsey_Museum_of_Archaeology" title="Kelsey Museum of Archaeology">Kelsey Museum of Archaeology</a>, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/metal/uc33268.html" rel="nofollow">image</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Hickmann, Hans (1957). "Un Zikr Dans le Mastaba de Debhen, Guîzah (IVème Dynastie)". <i>Journal of the International Folk Music Council</i> <b>9</b>: 59–62.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.atitle=Un+Zikr+Dans+le+Mastaba+de+Debhen%2C+Gu%C3%AEzah+%28IV%C3%A8me+Dynastie%29&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.au=Hickmann%2C+Hans&rft.aulast=Hickmann&rft.date=1957&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Folk+Music+Council&rft.pages=59%E2%80%9362&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=9"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">______. "Rythme, mètre et mesure de la musique instrumentale et vocale des anciens Egyptiens." <i>Acta Musicologica,</i> Vol. 32, Fasc. 1. (Jan. - Mar., 1960), pp. 11-22.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard O. Nidel, <i>World Music: The Basics</i>, p. 219.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Kahn, <i>World History: Societies of the Past</i>, p. 98.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World History: Societies of the Past By Charles Kahn (page 11)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World Music: The Basics By Nidel Nidel, Richard O. Nidel (page 10)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-JRT-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-JRT_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-JRT_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.rtjournal.org/vol_5/no_1/krahenbuhl.html" rel="nofollow">"A Theatre Before the World: Performance History at the Intersection of Hebrew, Greek, and Roman Religious Processional"</a> <i>The Journal of Religion and Theatre</i>, Vol. 5, No. 1, Summer 2006.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-grove-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-grove_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-grove_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-grove_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Savage, Roger. <a class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/43289" rel="nofollow">"Incidental music"</a>, Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, accessed 13 August 2012 <span style="color: #555555; font-size: 90%;">(subscription required)</span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-west-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-west_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">West, Martin Litchfield (1994). <i>Ancient Greek music</i>. Oxford University Press.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.aufirst=Martin+Litchfield&rft.aulast=West&rft.au=West%2C+Martin+Litchfield&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+music&rft.date=1994&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://trumpet.sdsu.edu/M345/Baroque_Music1.html" rel="nofollow"><i>Baroque Music</i> by Elaine Thornburgh and Jack Logan, Ph.D.</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1970. Print.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schaeffer, P. (1966), Traité des objets musicaux, Le Seuil, Paris.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alyn Shipton, <i>A New History of Jazz</i>, 2nd. ed., Continuum, 2007, pp. 4–5</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bill Kirchner, <i>The Oxford Companion to Jazz</i>, Oxford University Press, 2005, chapter two.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d32" rel="nofollow">allmusic – Rock and Roll</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Boretz" title="Benjamin Boretz">Boretz, Benjamin</a> (1995). <i>Meta-Variations: studies in the foundations of musical thought…</i>. Open Space.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.au=Boretz%2C+Benjamin&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft.aulast=Boretz&rft.btitle=Meta-Variations%3A+studies+in+the+foundations+of+musical+thought%E2%80%A6&rft.date=1995&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Open+Space&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harnsberger, Lindsey. "Articulation." <i>Essential Dictionary of Music</i>. Alfred Publishing Co., Inc. Los Angeles, CA.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Salimpoor,
VN; Benovoy, M; Larcher, K; Dagher, A; Zatorre, RJ (2011).
"Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and
experience of peak emotion to music". <i>Nature Neuroscience</i> <b>14</b> (2): 257–62. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnn.2726" rel="nofollow">10.1038/nn.2726</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21217764" rel="nofollow">21217764</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.atitle=Anatomically+distinct+dopamine+release+during+anticipation+and+experience+of+peak+emotion+to+music&rft.au=Benovoy%2C+M&rft.au=Dagher%2C+A&rft.aufirst=VN&rft.au=Larcher%2C+K&rft.aulast=Salimpoor&rft.au=Salimpoor%2C+VN&rft.au=Zatorre%2C+RJ&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnn.2726&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21217764&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Nature+Neuroscience&rft.pages=257%E2%80%9362&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=14"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Laske, Otto (1999). <i>Navigating New Musical Horizons (Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance)</i>. Westport: Greenwood Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30632-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30632-7">978-0-313-30632-7</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft.au=Laske%2C+Otto&rft.aulast=Laske&rft.btitle=Navigating+New+Musical+Horizons+%28Contributions+to+the+Study+of+Music+and+Dance%29&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30632-7&rft.place=Westport&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laske, O. (1999). AI and music: A cornerstone of cognitive musicology. In M. Balaban, K. Ebcioglu, & O. Laske (Eds.), <i>Understanding music with ai: Perspectives on music cognition.</i> Cambridge: The MIT Press.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graci, C. (2009-2010) A brief tour of the learning sciences featuring a cognitive tool for investigating melodic phenomena. <i>Journal of Educational Technology Systems</i>, 38(2), 181-211.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamman,
M., 1999. "Structure as Performance: Cognitive Musicology and the
Objectification of Procedure," in Otto Laske: Navigating New Musical
Horizons, ed. J. Tabor. New York: Greenwood Press.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallin, N. L. (1991): <i>Biomusicology: Neurophysiological, Neuropsychological and Evolutionary Perspectives on the Origins and Purposes of Music</i>, Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Brown.2C_Merker.2C_Wallin-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-Brown.2C_Merker.2C_Wallin_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallin,
Nils L./Björn Merker/Steven Brown (1999): "An Introduction to
Evolutionary Musicology." In: Wallin, Nils L./Björn Merker/Steven Brown
(Eds., 1999): <i>The Origins of Music</i>, pp. 5–6. <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262232065">ISBN 0-262-23206-5</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.afm.org/public/about/history.php" rel="nofollow">American Federation of Musicians/History</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since January 2011">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hubbard (1985), p. 429.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/adaccess.R0206/" rel="nofollow">"Canned Music on Trial"</a> part of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a>'s <i>Ad*Access</i> project.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, Chris (2006). The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business is Selling Less of More. Hyperion. <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1401302378">ISBN 1-4013-0237-8</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Tapscott" title="Don Tapscott">Tapscott, Don</a>; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_D._Williams_%28author%29" title="Anthony D. Williams (author)">Williams, Anthony D.</a> (2006-12-28). <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikinomics" title="Wikinomics">Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything</a></i>. Portfolio Hardcover. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59184-138-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59184-138-8">978-1-59184-138-8</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.aulast=Tapscott&rft.au=Tapscott%2C+Don&rft.btitle=Wikinomics%3A+How+Mass+Collaboration+Changes+Everything&rft.date=2006-12-28&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-59184-138-8&rft.pub=Portfolio+Hardcover&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Woodall and Ziembroski, 2002</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amber
Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of
Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim
Psychologists," Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357–377 [363]</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and after line 3,480, "Music a Remedy"</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ismenias
the Theban, Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and many
other diseases by music alone: as now thy do those, saith Bodine, that
are troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance. <a class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10800/10800-8.txt" rel="nofollow">Project Gutenberg's The Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democritus Junior</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.med.mun.ca/munmed/84/crellin.htm" rel="nofollow">"Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland. What should we do about it?"</a> by Dr. John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aung, Steven K.H., Lee, Mathew H.M., <a class="external text" href="http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/act.2004.10.266?journalCode=act" rel="nofollow">"Music,
Sounds, Medicine, and Meditation: An Integrative Approach to the
Healing Arts," Alternative & Complementary Therapies</a>, Oct 2004, Vol. 10, No. 5: 266–270.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www1.imperial.ac.uk/medicine/people/m.crawford/" rel="nofollow">Dr. Michael J. Crawford page</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a>, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychological Medicine.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Crawford, Mike J.; Talwar, Nakul, et al. (November 2006). <a class="external text" href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/189/5/405" rel="nofollow">"Music therapy for in-patients with schizophrenia: Exploratory randomised controlled trial"</a>. <i>The British Journal of Psychiatry (2006)</i> <b>189</b> (5): 405–409. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.bp.105.015073" rel="nofollow">10.1192/bjp.bp.105.015073</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17077429" rel="nofollow">17077429</a>.
"Music therapy may provide a means of improving mental health among
people with schizophrenia, but its effects in acute psychoses have not
been explored"</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.atitle=Music+therapy+for+in-patients+with+schizophrenia%3A+Exploratory+randomised+controlled+trial&rft.au=Crawford%2C+Mike+J.&rft.aufirst=Mike+J.&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbjp.rcpsych.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F189%2F5%2F405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1192%2Fbjp.bp.105.015073&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17077429&rft.issue=5&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Psychiatry+%282006%29&rft.pages=405%E2%80%93409&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=189"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.iadh.org/pdf/2006November.pdf" rel="nofollow">Treatment of Mental Illnesses With Music Therapy – A different approach from history</a></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Colles, Henry Cope (1978). <i>The Growth of Music : A Study in Musical History</i>, 4th ed., London ; New York : Oxford University Press. <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0193161168">ISBN 0-19-316116-8</a> (<a class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=PrkNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+growth+of+music" rel="nofollow">1913 edition online</a> at <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Book_Search" title="Google Book Search">Google Books</a>)</li>
<li><span class="citation journal">Harwood, Dane (1976). "Universals in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology". <i>Ethnomusicology</i> <b>20</b> (3): 521–33. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F851047" rel="nofollow">10.2307/851047</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMusic&rft.atitle=Universals+in+Music%3A+A+Perspective+from+Cognitive+Psychology&rft.aufirst=Dane&rft.au=Harwood%2C+Dane&rft.aulast=Harwood&rft.date=1976&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F851047&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=Ethnomusicology&rft.pages=521%E2%80%9333&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=20"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li>Small, Christopher (1977). <i>Music, Society, Education</i>. John Calder Publishers, London. <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0714536148">ISBN 0-7145-3614-8</a></li>
</ul>
<h2>
<span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% rgb(249, 249, 249); border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.25em 0.5em 0.5em 0.75em;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); margin: auto; padding-bottom: 0.5em; text-align: center;">Find more about <b>Music</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td style="padding-top: 0.75em;"><a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Wiktionary"><img alt="" height="25" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/23px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png" width="23" /></a></td>
<td style="padding-top: 0.75em;"><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="wikt:Special:Search/Music">Definitions and translations</a> from Wiktionary</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td><a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Commons"><img alt="" height="25" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="18" /></a></td>
<td><a class="extiw" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="commons:Special:Search/Music">Media</a> from Commons</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td><a href="http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Wikiversity"><img alt="" height="23" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg/25px-Wikiversity-logo-en.svg.png" width="25" /></a></td>
<td><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="v:Special:Search/Music">Learning resources</a> from Wikiversity</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td><a href="http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Wikinews"><img alt="" height="14" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/25px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" width="25" /></a></td>
<td><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="n:Special:Search/Music">News stories</a> from Wikinews</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td><a href="http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Wikiquote"><img alt="" height="25" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/21px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" width="21" /></a></td>
<td><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="q:Special:Search/Music">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td><a href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="" height="25" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="24" /></a></td>
<td><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="s:Special:Search/Music">Source texts</a> from Wikisource</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 25px;">
<td><a href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="Search Wikibooks"><img alt="" height="25" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/25px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" width="25" /></a></td>
<td><a class="extiw" href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Music" title="b:Special:Search/Music">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/blast/music/" rel="nofollow">BBC Blast Music</a> For 13–19-year-olds interested in learning about, making, performing and talking about music.</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/" rel="nofollow">The Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary</a>, with definitions, pronunciations, examples, quizzes and simulations</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.music-web.org/" rel="nofollow">The Music-Web Music Encyclopedia</a>, for musicians, composers and music lovers</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://dolmetsch.com/musictheorydefs.htm" rel="nofollow">Dolmetsch free online music dictionary</a>, complete, with references to a list of specialised music dictionaries (by continent, by instrument, by genre, etc.)</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.naxos.com/education/glossary.asp" rel="nofollow">Musical Terms</a> – Glossary of music terms from Naxos</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.uned.es/dpto_fil/revista/polemos/articulos/MA_Quintana_On%20Hermeneutical%20Ethics%20&%20Education%20%28Internet%292.doc" rel="nofollow">"On Hermeneutical Ethics and Education: Bach als Erzieher"</a>,
a paper by Prof. Miguel Ángel Quintana Paz in which he explains the
history of the different views hold about music in Western societies,
since the Ancient Greece to our days.</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.bsmny.org/features" rel="nofollow">Monthly Online Features From Bloomingdale School of Music</a>, addressing a variety of musical topics for a wide audience</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.musicfoundations.org/pages/3/index.htm" rel="nofollow">Arts and Music Uplifting Society towards Transformation and Tolerance</a>
Articles meant to stimulate people’s awareness about the peace
enhancing, transforming, communicative, educational and healing powers
of music.</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=musical-chills-related-to-brain-dop-11-01-09" rel="nofollow">Scientific American, <i>Musical Chills Related to Brain Dopam</i></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
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